SOCTEC2 Module 1 lecture note

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Here's the lecture note for Module 1.

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SOCTEC2

Module 1 Lecture Notes

KEY CONCEPT POINTS FOR UNDERSTANDING:

• The Development Process
• Most people define development as a process of change, progress and modernization.
• However, development could also be seen beyond the material dimension and needs of human beings and in the context of their political and even spiritual development.
• The dominant model of development sees it as synonymous with economic growth. As such, it is associated with increasing productive capacities of economies to generate wealth. Its main indicators include modernization, westernization and industrialization of what used to be traditional societies.
• However, a growth-oriented model of development, which produced positive changes in the lives of some people, also produced negative impacts. There are many examples where the gap between the rich and the poor within countries further widened, even as the same is also true between rich and poor countries. Furthermore, growth models for development created more dependency of poor countries on rich countries, and further impoverished many sectors even as they benefited only the elite sectors of society, and the interests of richer countries.
• The problem which growth-models of development produced led to the development of alternative models for development.
• There are those who look at development in terms of the human dimension. This perspective recognizes the need for economic and material development, but goes beyond this by also focusing on political empowerment, political development, and even moral and spiritual development.
• There are also those who see development as a product of a Western, capitalist and male-dominated perspectives. This particular view advances as alternative models of development those processes that puts value on indigenous practices, or more sustainable development and less capitalist and profit-oriented practices, or practices that are more “feminine”.
• Theories of social and technical change
• Development entails a process of social change, and science and technology play a big role in the process.
• The relationships between social change and technical change can be seen in three perspectives: techno-determinism, structural functionalism, and historical materialism.
• Techno-determinism, whose main exponent is J.K. Galbraith, considers technology as the main driver for social change. Such view is supported by the argument that the universal application of technology has led to industrialization. Technological developments in North America and Europe became the main engines that that drove the industrial revolution, and caused significant changes in the economy, politics and culture of human societies not only in these places but worldwide.
• Structural functionalism, which is mainly espoused by W.W. Rostow, looks at social changes as an evolutionary process. As such, change is viewed as gradual and incremental, wherein the ideal state is characterized by balance and harmony, and wherein conflict is seen as dysfunctional and abnormal. This view argues that societies start as traditional characterized mainly by limited production. This is caused by the prevalence of primitive technologies and of spiritual worldviews, which were the dominant characteristics of the pre-industrial stage. The emergence of modern science and the development of modern technologies gradually drove traditional societies to become more modern, and prepared them for economic “take-off.” These societies eventually took-off with the further modernization of scientific and technological activities. This was seen during the period of the industrial revolution. The continued development of scientific knowledge and technological innovation eventually drive society to achieve full maturity, where the main economic activity is the production of consumer goods, and where consumption now exceeds needs, a society that can be considered as experiencing a state of “high mass consumption.” Such final state is now referred to as the post-industrial stage.
• The third theoretical perspective, which draws its theoretical roots from Marxism, is referred to as historical materialism. While structural functionalism believes in evolutionary change, historical materialism posits a dynamic view of society, and considers conflict and contradiction as the key processes that drive social change. This is in contrast to structural functionalism which considers conflict as dysfunctional. Historical materialists argue that the historical development of society is driven by the contradiction between social forces at a given time. The resolution, or synthesis, of such conflict paves the way for the emergence of a new period. Marx and other historical-materialists define society according to the manner by which social institutions are organized in relation to the conversion of nature into products and commodities, referred to as modes of production. Transformations in the modes of production were seen in the succession from primitive socialism, to kinship modes, to feudalism, then to capitalism, and finally to communism. The process of transformation in the modes of production emanates from the inherent conflict between social classes within such mode of production. Technology, in this context, is now seen as comprising the forces of production, which in the context of a given mode of production is under the control of the ruling class and is used by it to maintain the status quo. However, the ruling class may eventually lose control when it is unable to control the emerging technologies. This situation may eventually lead to a crisis, and the social class that has the capacity to control the emerging technologies is the one who will become the revolutionary class and challenge the current ruling class. This view could be clearly illustrated in the transition from feudalism to capitalism in Europe. In feudalism, the mode of production is land-based, and the dominant technologies are agricultural in nature of which the ruling landlords have control. However, during the industrial revolution, the production process shifted from agriculture to industry. This was facilitated by the development of industrial technologies used by the nascent or early industrial classes. Eventually, the bourgeoisie or the capitalist class that acquired control over these emerging technologies became the revolutionary class which challenged the landlords and eventually took control of society in the context of a capitalist mode of production. However, this framework becomes problematic when we apply it in the analysis of the transition from capitalism to socialism. In Marxist theory, the revolutionary class in advanced capitalism is supposed to be the working class, who provides the fundamental technology for human labor. However, the emergence of mechanization and the development of information technology, artificial intelligence, and knowledge in robotics have effectively displaced the working class. These technologies are not controlled by the revolutionary working class, but are instead controlled by the technocratic class composed of science-based technical experts.

§ The relationship between science and technology on one hand and the development process on the other can be understood in the context of four basic processes. These are modernization, the development of the modern state and its attendant bureaucratic organizations, the development of a capitalist economy, and globalization.

o Science, Technology and Modernization

§ Modernization is a process of social change, wherein a given society moves from a primitive state towards an advanced and modern state. This movement is unidirectional, and is considered to be good since it implies progress, humanity and civilization.

§ This change is not revolutionary but evolutionary in nature, characterized by a slow, gradual and piecemeal process.

§ The modernization process is characterized by the following:

· Phased—the process comes in stages

· Homogenizing—the process tends to unify different political, cultural, economic and social systems into a single system

· Europeanization (or Westernization)—the process follows the European or Western models and patterns of social change

· Irreversible—a system cannot go back to its original state once modernization ensues

· Progressive—the change is from backward to advanced states

· Lengthy—the process takes a long time

· Systematic—the process follows a distinct pattern

· Transformative—the process transforms societies from one state of existence to another

· Immanent—the process is inevitable

§ The following characteristics are associated with relatively non-modernized societies

· Low degree of specialization

· High level of self-sufficiency

· Cultural norms of tradition, particularism and functional diffuseness

· Relatively low emphasis on money circulation and market

· Family norms such as nepotism are prevalent

· One-way flow of goods and services from rural to urban areas

§ On the other hand, the following characteristics are associated with relatively modernized societies:

· High degree of specialization and interdependency of organizations

· Cultural norms of rationality, universalism and functional specificity

· High degree of centralization

· Relatively more emphasis on money circulation and market

· Emphasis on bureaucratic organizations

· Two-way flow of goods and services between towns and villages

§ The role of science and technology in the process of modernization

· It is inaccurate to argue that non-modern societies do not have their own technologies, nor it is correct to argue that they do not have science. Science and technology, albeit in nascent forms, are present even in non-modern societies. For example, technologies such as the wheel, or knowledge about fire and gunpowder, were discovered in relatively non-modernized contexts.

· The relationships between modernization on one hand and science and technology on the other, is not unilinear, in that it is hard to say that one causes the other.

· Modernization is enabled by developments in scientific knowledge and technologies. However, the increasing complexity of society which attends the modernization process also enables the growth of science and technology by providing the context for the development of higher levels of thinking, seen in the emergence of new problems and the development of new mechanisms for discovery. Modern societies demand newer knowledge systems and technological innovations. The need for new technologies emerges as a result of new lifestyles which, in turn, are influenced by new technologies.

· For example, electricity is a product of modern technologies that emanate from modern societies, even as electricity enables the further modernization of societies. Another example is the development of automobiles which created changes in society, and these changes eventually required better technologies in transportation to satisfy the demand for cleaner, faster, safer and more efficient modes of transport

o Science, technology and state-building

§ Political modernization, seen in the development and emergence of the state and the bureaucracy, emerged hand in hand with the process of social and cultural modernization.

§ Political modernization involved the differentiation of political structures. It also saw the secularization of political culture and the entrenchment of the ethos of equality as a political ideal. Consequently, it led to the enhancement of the capacity of a society’s political system.

§ The modern state is an outcome of the increasing scale or coverage of a political system, and its ability to implement its decisions. It is now able to perform its tasks through bureaucratic organizations that are able to penetrate, govern and regulate the conduct of its citizens. It also acquired the capacity to aggregate the interests of various political groups. This is achieved through the institutionalization of political structures and processes that strengthen the capacity of the state for problem-solving even as it is able to sustain the emergence of new political demands and organizations.

§ However, together with increasing complexity of the state, the continuous demands by society for equality eventually creates tensions and divisiveness that may lead to the following crises:

· The crisis of national identity engendered by the shifting loyalties of citizens from primordial groups to the nation

· The crisis of political legitimacy of the state

· The crisis of penetration, seen in the difficulty in applying policies throughout society through the central government

· The crisis of citizen participation

· The crisis of integrating the interests of various political groups

· The crisis of distribution emanating from the inability of the state is to bring about economic growth, and its failure to distribute the benefits of such growth.

§ The role of science and technology in the development of the state

· Science and technology are resources which the state uses to enhance its capacity to deal with the various crises cited above. States consider science and technology as vital in establishing and maintaining the foundations of political and economic stability of society. A country that is in control of its scientific and technological resources, and which possess the capacity to expand and modernize such resources, would be in a better position to address the various economic and political problems the come its way.

· The modernization process manifests itself in the various bureaucratic organizations. Max Weber has defined bureaucracy as a modern organization, contrasting it to traditional institutions. It is through bureaucratic organizations that the operations of the modern state are facilitated. What makes bureaucratic organizations modern is their dependency on modern machines, tools, and techniques that allow them to deal with the various complex problems that arise from modern societies.

· Principles of scientific management are used in the operations of modern organizations, including those that are under the state in addition to private corporations. These principles, which originated from the writings of Frederick Taylor, entail the management and governance of organizations using scientific approaches, such as work fragmentation, seen in the division of work into its composite parts and the assignment of each to different individuals specializing in such specific tasks. It is also in the context of scientific management that principles were laid out for the development of planning and monitoring systems. These were all aimed at promoting efficiency in aid of the advancement of the modern state and its economic system, which is mainly capitalist in nature.

o Science, technology and capitalism

§ The dominant economic system associated with the development process is a capitalist economy which replaced the traditional agricultural economy. This type of economy, which is an outcome of the industrialization process, accomplished such through the rise of new entrepreneurs and the expansion of markets.

§ Underdeveloped and traditional economies are usually seen as closed and backward, in which there is an oversupply of labor which are not fully employed to their productive capacities. This type of economy is dominated by a subsistence sector, which is mainly based on family labor and with low labor productivity, and low levels of capital investments.

§ Capitalism took off as an economic system through the emergence of the capitalist sector, which replaced the subsistence sector, as the dominant sector in the economy. This was attended by the effective mobilization of capital and productive resources which enabled productive investment in the manufacturing sector to become a significant part of national income. Soon after, these investments went to other sectors and led to a situation in which population growth was overtaken by economic growth.

§ The increase in investments, which was supported by an increase in the rate of savings, is what drove the capitalist sector to grow significantly. The final stage of capitalism, as discussed by Rostow in his five-stage theory of growth, is a society of high mass consumption. This society is characterized by growth in employment opportunities, increase in national income, a continuing rise in consumer demands, and the formation of a strong domestic market.

§ One of the key challenges which any development process always contends with is the incidence of poverty. This phenomenon has been characterized as a vicious cycle. On the demand side, low incomes of the general population lead to low demands for products. This then dampens the incentives for private investments that further lead to low productivity. Low productivity eventually leads to low income. On the supply side of the poverty cycle, low income leads to low savings. Low savings in turn reduce the levels of capital, which consequently leads to low productivity. Low productivity eventually leads to low income.

§ In order for a system to break out of this cycle, a strong incentive system for investments needs to be created. There is also a need to expand markets by balancing capital investments in a number of key industrial sectors.

§ It is in this context that science and technology can play an important role.

· In addition to financial investments in labor and materials, expansion in industry can also be achieved by investments in science and technology. The industrial revolution in Europe was enabled by developments in science and technology, and capitalism’s rise was influenced by advances in technological expertise. The development of new machines and methods enabled the development of new production processes. The increasing capacity of the capitalist economy to expand was enabled by the conversion of raw materials into commodities, and the search for new materials and sources of energy.

· Scientific and technological developments in agriculture, such as biotechnology and agricultural engineering, enhanced the land productivity and modernized agricultural production.

· Advances in information technology and developments in computers, artificial intelligence, and robotics have also enhanced the productivity of work.

o Science, technology and globalization

§ The decades prior to the early 1970s were characterized by a capitalist world economy dominated by growing commodity trade among capitalist economies, and the internationalization of commercial capital. This increasing internationalization of productive capital, manifested in the transfer of industrial production from the industrialized countries to the developing countries resulted to a new international division of labor. The transformation in the production process and the emergence of new patterns in industrial growth in the developing countries, formerly referred to as the “Third World” but has since become the “South,” were facilitated by the following social and technological developments:

· The emergence in the developing economies of an increasing reserve army of comparatively cheap labor.

· The emergence of subcontracting as a practice, wherein advances in technology enabled the splitting up of the production process into constituent parts, some of which can be executed even by unskilled or quickly trained, semi-skilled workforce.

· The emergence of the “information” superhighway, enabled by technological advances in transportation and telecommunication.

§ Globalization is a process that is different from and goes beyond the process of transnationalization or internationalization of capital.

· Internationalization of capital involves merely the relocation of certain production processes to other countries, including developing countries. An example is a Japanese-based company relocating its assembly plants to the Philippines.

· On the other hand, globalization involves a deliberate restructuring of manufacturing, trade, and services within a system that is global in scale. In this context, the actors are no longer national companies that relocate limited and specialized parts of their production processes to developing countries, but instead are globally oriented mega-corporations or transnational corporations (TNCs) that organize their entire production and sales as a world-wide operation.

· This latter type of globalization is enabled both by a rapid growth of global financial markets resulting from the deregulation of financial transactions, as well as technological developments in information technology that allow corporations to run their operations on a global scale through computer hook-ups, teleconferencing, and the development of electronic banking and financial transactions. This development is called technocapitalism, and is associated with the enhanced movement of money, ideas, products, design and services within societies and across societies.